Black Ops 7 is the latest addition to the Call of Duty franchise, bringing even faster and more dynamic gunfights thanks to the new wall-jumping movement system. As the gameplay speeds up, your connection needs to keep up with it.

Playing with high ping, packet loss or an unstable connection will immediately put you at a massive disadvantage.

In this guide, we’ll show you how the Netduma R3 gaming router can optimise your connection to eliminate high ping, packet loss and instability in Black Ops 7. We’ve also included essential network tips to help you improve your connection even further.

Check Black Ops 7 Server Status

If you’re suddenly experiencing lag, stuttering, or difficulty connecting, the first thing to check is the Black Ops 7 server status. During busy periods such as a new season or peak evening hours, servers can become overloaded or temporarily unstable, causing higher base ping, packet burst, or login issues.

Here are some useful links to check the current status of Black Ops 7’s servers:

• Black Ops 7 Server Status
• Black Ops 7 Downdetector
• Black Ops 7 X (Twitter) Account

If servers are experiencing problems, there is unfortunately no direct fix—you simply need to wait for the developers to resolve the issue. However, confirming that the servers are the cause can save you time troubleshooting your own equipment unnecessarily.

Use a Wired Connection for Black Ops 7

One of the simplest and fastest ways to improve your connection in Black Ops 7 is to switch from Wi-Fi to a wired Ethernet connection.

While Wi-Fi is convenient, especially if your console or PC is in another room, it introduces a lot of variables that can weaken your connection. Interference, signal drop-off over distance and inconsistent signal strength are all common issues that can cause packet loss and latency spikes during intense matches.

A wired Ethernet connection provides a far more stable and consistent link to your router, which is crucial for a fast-paced shooter like Black Ops 7.

If running a cable isn’t practical, you may want to consider using powerline adapters. These allow you to achieve a stable wired-like connection across rooms without needing to run long cables through your home.

Black Ops 7 Connection Settings

To understand what type of connection issues are affecting your gameplay, you should enable Telemetry in the Settings menu. Setting this to Essentials provides the most important information without cluttering your screen.

Once enabled, you’ll see real-time ping and packet loss indicators, giving you immediate feedback on whether you’re experiencing high ping, jitter or packet burst.

Another setting worth adjusting is On-Demand Texture Streaming. Since the ability to disable this feature was removed, some players have reported it causing packet burst during gameplay. Setting it to Minimum may help reduce this issue, and adjusting the Allocated Texture Cache Size to Medium or Large through the Show More menu can further stabilise your connection quality.

Optimise Your Connection in Black Ops 7

If you want the best possible connection in Black Ops 7, the Netduma R3 gaming router is built specifically for gamers who want superior stability and responsiveness in their gameplay.

Its features are designed to eliminate high ping, packet loss, jitter and network congestion so that every match feels fast and consistent, even when your home network is under heavy load.

Below, we break down exactly how the R3 can fix the most common connection issues affecting Black Ops 7 players.

Fix High Ping in Black Ops 7 with Geo-Filter

High ping puts you at an immediate disadvantage, especially with Black Ops 7’s faster movement system and rapid gunfights. High ping is almost always caused by being placed on a distant or overloaded game server.

Even though Black Ops 7 has moved away from strict SBMM, the game may still connect you to a suboptimal server, resulting in sluggish, delayed gameplay.

Geo-Filter is the only tool that gives you full control over the servers you connect to. With the R3’s Geo-Filter enabled, you can force your game to only use the lowest-ping servers while blocking high-ping or unstable ones. This guarantees a consistently responsive experience match after match.

Simply add your device, select Black Ops 7 as your game, and adjust your filter radius to cover the best server locations. You can also use the R3’s Ping Heatmap feature to identify where the highest-performing servers are located.

If you want to learn more about the set up process and what the Geo-Filter can do, check out our blog on it here. Or if you want to see the feature in action, check out our ultimate Geo-Filter guide video below.

Fix Ping Spikes in Black Ops 7 with Steady Ping

Steady Ping is another powerful feature that will increase how responsive your inputs and gameplay feel. It does this by eliminating jitter – the micro changes in ping, from your connection. This allows you game to better sync to the game server, which should make your gameplay feel extremely smooth.

Once Steady Ping is enabled, you can see your ping automatically becoming stabilised in the ping graph section. If you want to experiement with settings to find the sweet spot for your network, you can switch Steady Ping to Expert Mode.

Fix Packet Loss in Black Ops 7 with SmartBOOST

The last connection issue to fix in Black Ops 7 is packet loss and packet burst, which is often caused by network congestion. If you’re gaming on a busy network filled with bandwidth intensive activities like video streaming and file downloads – it can cause your game to lag and stutter.

SmartBOOST is the ultimate network optimisation tool that eliminates congestion and bufferbloat so your gaming remains smooth and stable, no matter how busy your network is.

It ensures whatever applications you mark as high priority always get the amount of bandwidth they need for optimal performance. This means if gaming is the top priority on your network, intensive activities won’t be able to cause you any issues.

If you want to see SmartBOOST optimise a busy home network for gaming, check out our live demo video below.

There has never been a better time for Wi-Fi offloading. In recent years, Wi-Fi technology developments have advanced more than in the previous decade, bringing improvements that enable mobile operators to deploy Wi-Fi offloading more effectively and provide a superior user experience. We have already covered Passpoint in a recent white paper excerpt. This time we will focus on the next-generation Wi-Fi radio technologies making Wi-Fi more carrier-class than ever before. In an upcoming post we will talk about the WBA OpenRoaming initiative, but we have plenty of information about OpenRoaming already here in Enea Insights.

As districts plan their 2026 Wi-Fi and switching refreshes, RUCKUS is committed to supporting the networks that keep classrooms connected and learning uninterrupted.

CITE in California brought clear momentum around modernizing school networks. Across conversations with district technology leaders, several priorities surfaced repeatedly:

• Refreshing aging Wi-Fi^® systems
• Moving toward Wi-Fi 7
• Upgrading to multigig switching
• Preparing for higher device density
• Reducing support tickets through better visibility
• Strengthening safety and camera networks

With Year 1 of the E-Rate cycle underway, districts see this as a rare window to make foundational upgrades that can support the next 5–7 years of growth.

RUCKUS AI^™ also generated strong interest, especially the Digital Systems Engineer (DSE). Being able to troubleshoot with natural-language commands resonated with teams that need faster ways to understand what’s happening across their networks.

What K-12 Networks Need from Switching Today

K-12 environments are among the most demanding. IT teams support:

• Online testing
• Classroom mobility
• Smartboards and AV systems
• Safety platforms
• IoT devices
• Building operations
• Districtwide cameras
• Student and teacher devices
• After-school and stadium networks

When switching falters, classrooms slow down, testing is disrupted, and support teams get buried in urgent issues. When switching stays stable, everything runs smoothly.  RUCKUS ICX^® was engineered specifically for these real-world school conditions.

Built for Real School Workloads

ICX switches include wire-speed forwarding, non-blocking architectures, fast failover, and flexible stacking. This helps schools stay steady during:

• Testing surges
• Video streaming across classrooms
• Safety camera bursts
• Arrival and dismissal spikes
• STEM and CTE lab activity

These capabilities reflect the daily rhythm of K-12 networks and the pressure they face.

Stacking That Makes District Life Easier

School environments grow one project at a time. New wings open, portables get added, libraries modernize, or STEM labs expand. Logical chassis stacking in ICX switches helps IT teams:

• Manage an entire stack with one IP
• Scale without rearchitecting the network
• Avoid performance bottlenecks
• Add switches as funding becomes available

This approach aligns with phased E-Rate purchasing and refresh cycles.

Resiliency That Reduces Classroom Interruptions

Fabric-level redundancy, intelligent failover, and adaptable uplinks help maintain service during maintenance or unexpected outages. A dropped connection during testing or instruction can derail a classroom. These resiliency features minimize disruptions and reduce the number of urgent tickets that pull staff away from long-term responsibilities.

Long-Term Reliability for Education Budgets

Education budgets move in cycles, so switches often need to last several refresh windows. ICX switches are built for longevity, helping districts:

• Extend refresh timelines
• Reduce operational overhead
• Maintain stable environments for years

It’s one reason ICX hardware often stays in service longer than competitive models.

What K-12 IT Teams Consistently Ask For

Across hundreds of conversations, the same needs appear again and again:

• Stable performance during online testing
• Switching that doesn’t require constant attention
• The ability to add rooms or buildings without redesigning the network
• Hardware that lasts multiple budget cycles
• Clear visibility across every site

ICX was built to address these priorities directly.

Preparing for the Next Wave of K-12 Technology

Growth in student devices, IoT sensors, safety tools, cameras, smart classroom peripherals, esports, and STEM programs means switching remains the foundation that keeps everything steady. ICX supports today’s load and tomorrow’s expansion.

A Better Way to Manage K-12 Networks
When paired with RUCKUS One^®, ICX becomes even easier to manage. IT teams get:

• One cloud-based dashboard
• Unified visibility across access points, switches, and clients
• Reduced troubleshooting time
• Faster root-cause analysis
• Historical insights for high-demand days and testing weeks

For stretched-thin school technology teams, this level of visibility is a major advantage.

Captive Portal Setup

What is a Captive Portal?

A captive portal is a web page that appears when users connect to your venue’s guest WiFi, prompting them to log in, accept terms, or provide information before accessing the internet. Think of it as a digital welcome mat and security gate, ensuring only authorized users gain access while allowing you to collect valuable data.

Why Use a Captive Portal?

• Enhanced Security: Restricts access to approved guests only.
• Data Collection: Capture emails, demographics, or feedback for remarketing.
• Branding: Custom splash pages reinforce your brand.
• Monetization: Display ads or offers to drive revenue.
• Compliance: Meet legal or industry requirements for guest WiFi.

Step-by-Step: Setting Up a Captive Portal

1. Assess Your Network Hardware

Ensure your routers and access points support captive portal features. Most enterprise-grade WiFi hardware (e.g., Cisco Meraki, Ubiquiti, Ruckus) is compatible.

2. Update Firmware and Software

Keep your network devices updated for security and compatibility.

3. Access Router Settings

Log into your router or WiFi controller’s admin dashboard. Look for the “Guest Network” or “Captive Portal” section.

4. Choose a Captive Portal Solution

Select a cloud-based platform like GoZone WiFi’s Marketing4WiFi for easy setup, advanced integrations, and analytics. These solutions offer user-friendly builders for custom splash pages and flexible login options.

5. Configure the Captive Portal

• Set your SSID (network name) for guest WiFi
• Customize your splash/login page (logo, colors, messaging)
• Decide what data to collect (email, phone, survey responses)
• Set authentication methods (email, SMS, social login)

Splash Page Example

6. Test the Experience

Connect as a guest and walk through the login process. Ensure data collection and authentication are working smoothly.

7. Launch and Monitor

Go live! Use your captive portal’s analytics to track logins, engagement, and conversions. Adjust your splash page and offers as needed.

Final Thoughts

A well-designed captive portal does more than provide WiFi access—it’s a powerful tool for growing your marketing list, boosting revenue, and delivering a great guest experience. Choose a solution that fits your venue’s needs, and you’ll see measurable results in no time.

The state of business Wi-Fi right now

The business landscape isn’t just changing fast—it’s transforming at the speed of AI. Networking teams now face challenges their Wi-Fi isn’t built for. AI and IoT operations need continuous, often instant access to data. Device proliferation is clogging up networks. And unmanaged devices are increasing risk exposure.

Without the right approach, network bottlenecks become business bottlenecks. That means more support tickets, more security incidents, and less time spent focusing on business growth.

The solution is simple: enhanced performance, resilience, and security with Wi-Fi 7.

Why businesses need faster, more secure Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi 7 uses advancements like wider channels and multi-link operation (MLO) to dramatically transform network performance. If your business depends on high-speed connectivity (looking at you retail, manufacturing, and financial services), the outcomes are tangible: 

• Drastically lower latency
• Much higher bandwidth for data-intensive apps
• Faster data transfer speeds
• Enhanced network reliability

By implementing Wi-Fi 7 solutions, you’ll be able to support everything from 4K and 8K video streaming to data-hungry AI applications with ease.

Wi-Fi 7 also provides security enhancements by incorporating Wi-Fi Protected Access 3 (WPA3). As your network scales and your company grows, WPA3 enables more advanced encryption and authentication methods, ensuring more reliable connectivity for employees and customers.

Why companies of all sizes are moving to Wi-Fi 7

What do the most successful companies across industries consistently deliver? Experiences. And every experience in today’s digital-first world depends on the power of the network. Wi-Fi 7 unlocks new, bespoke experiences at scale, securely—no matter the retail location, event venue, or crowd size.

When you move to Wi-Fi 7, you can expect massive upgrades, like:

• Ultra-high performance: 4x data transfer rates compared to Wi-Fi 6 and 6E, and 2x wider channels up to 320 MHz.
• Built-in security: WPA3 certification with mandatory Protected Management Frames to protect against deauthentication attacks.
• Simplified IT operations: Flexible management across cloud, on-premises, or hybrid environments.
• AI-driven assurance: Predicts and resolves issues proactively, ensuring consistent, high-quality connectivity.

Now, let’s take a look at Cisco Wi-Fi 7 in action.

How a global retailer delivers bespoke experiences with Wi-Fi 7

Samsøe Samsøe is a retailer that puts innovative customer experiences first. With 69 locations in 19 countries, creating those differentiated experiences in every store is no easy feat.

Then they moved to a cloud-first, wireless-first model with Cisco. By deploying Wi-Fi 7 access points in stores, Samsøe Samsøe made in-store experiences unique and frictionless for customers.

Picture this:

• Joining the loyalty program with one tap
• Syncing instantly with POS and automatically connecting to Wi-Fi in every store
• Using Wi-Fi 7 infrastructure to gain actionable insights into customer behavior
• Experiencing innovations like smart dressing rooms that simplify try-before-you-buy

Advanced Wi-Fi 7 features like high throughput, location services, and OpenRoaming data make it all possible. Best of all, these outcomes are repeatable. With the Meraki dashboard, Samsøe Samsøe can use network templates to spin up new locations with 300% fewer IT resources.

But retail isn’t the only industry where Wi-Fi 7 use cases are changing the game.

Event experiences in the AI era: Live Nation and BottleRock

Live Nation Entertainment produces 40,000 shows and 100 festivals every year, and BottleRock Napa Valley continues to be a marquee event.

This year, Live Nation’s production team had clear goals:

• Provide secure, high-performance connectivity for thousands of simultaneous users in a high-density environment
• Support massive real-time data transfer volumes without hiccups
• Ensure zero downtime during peak moments
• Deliver comprehensive network and operational visibility to manage crowd flow, security, and vendor transactions

The math was daunting: 55,000 unique Wi-Fi users, more than 20,000 concurrent connections, 44 terabytes of data, and three days of unforgettable festival experiences.

Cisco and partner Clair Global delivered advanced wireless solutions to meet these goals. The new Cisco Wireless 9179F large public venue access point and Catalyst 9300 switches provided robust, low-latency, high-bandwidth connectivity. Thanks to OpenRoaming, festivalgoers enjoyed password-free, automatic, and secure Wi-Fi access for more convenient event experiences.

Live Nation also leveraged AI area occupancy and presence analytics directly on Cisco MV cameras to get real-time telemetry on crowd flow and security. Plus, Splunk dashboards aggregated data from network sensors, cameras, and applications to deliver comprehensive operational insights and help optimize future events.

Now, let’s move to our epic team-up with the USGA at the U.S. Open.

U.S. Open Golf: Connectivity from the tee to the clubhouse

How’s this for a challenge: powering secure network access for more than 225,000 attendees across four days, 900 screen displays, and 191 acres of ground at Oakmont Country Club.

The USGA deployed CW9179F Access Points—designed specifically for large-scale environments like the men’s U.S. Open—to deliver faster network speeds, lower latency, and reliable, high-density connectivity. Campus Gateways were also deployed, a cloud-based wireless solution purpose-built for seamless roaming at scale, so fan devices stay connected as they traverse the course.

The results speak for themselves:

• 82 terabytes of data transferred over the USGA network (including 13 TB of fan data)
• 40,195 unique devices supported
• 4x faster upload and download speeds in high-density areas of the course

The ecosystem at the USGA also integrated Splunk observability to deliver real-time network visibility and insights, Cisco Spaces to understand crowd movement and hotspots, and Webex to make staff collaboration a breeze.

How Cisco Wi-Fi 7 enhances business connectivity

Cisco Wi-Fi 7 access points are designed to support growing businesses of all sizes. Our APs go beyond the standard with built-in Ultra-Reliable Wireless Backhaul (URWB) and Ultra-Wideband (UWB) technologies. These innovations deliver low-latency connectivity to support advanced applications and seamless mobility for users across diverse environments. And now, our Wi-Fi 7 access points are even simpler to purchase and deploy with unified licensing and a single support model.

Security is fused into the network with WPA3 and Cisco ISE, enabling dynamic segmentation and adaptive policy management. This empowers IT to protect every Wi-Fi 7 connection to devices, users, apps, and more.

To keep pace with AI advancements, we’ve infused AI-powered assurance across our entire Wi-Fi 7 portfolio:

• Automated Root Cause Analysis (RCA): Quickly identifies and expedites issue resolution to reduce troubleshooting time.
• Client Analytics: Provides real-time device identification and profiling to manage and troubleshoot unmanaged devices.
• AI-Enhanced Radio Resource Management (AI-RRM): Uses machine learning to optimize wireless configurations proactively to improve connection quality.
• Seamless integration with ThousandEyes: Enables predictive network optimization to ensure more efficient traffic flow.
• Unified AI-powered platform: Supports continuous performance optimization to drastically reduce manual errors and ensure every user experience is flawless.

Why now is the time to upgrade

As the digital landscape changes at the pace of AI innovation, your business needs to keep up. More devices, higher data consumption, AI applications, and more demanding customer expectations require it.

With Cisco Wi-Fi 7 solutions you’ll be able to:

• Fuel employee innovation and collaboration with reliable, high-speed wireless
• Deliver bespoke experiences in any setting, from boutique retail locations to epic events
• Power new levels of operational efficiency and IT agility, all while reducing costs
• Lay a foundation for the future-proofed workplace, with a more secure, resilient network that scales at the speed of your growth

So, are you ready to see what Cisco Wi-Fi 7 solutions can do? Check out our latest offers now.

5G introduces new network architectural concepts for Wi-Fi integration with the 5G standalone mobile core (5G SA). The simplified diagram below shows Wi-Fi service integration with the new service-based 5G Core (5GC) introduced in 3GPP release 15 (untrusted Wi-Fi) and 16 (trusted Wi-Fi).

The first thing to observe is that this architecture is radio network (RAN) agnostic since both the Cellular and Wi-Fi access use the same interfaces (N1, N2, and N3).

Furthermore, 5G has adopted an EAP-based authentication framework (EAP-AKA’ or 5G-AKA), similar to Wi-Fi, for user equipment (UE) authentication with the 5G core.

The 5G signaling and user traffic are transported over IPsec tunnels established between the device, aka user equipment (UE), and the gateway functions (N3IWF, TWIF, and TNGF).

The GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP) encapsulation creates tunnels for traffic between the gateway functions and the user plane function (UPF), aka packet gateway.

Network Functions for Wi-Fi Access

Let’s now examine the new functions for Wi-Fi access (non-3GPP access). Please note that these functions are not the same as physical gateways. In practice, these functions could all reside in the same gateway.

Non-3GPP Interworking Function (N3IWF)

The Non-3GPP Interworking Function (N3IWF) is a crucial component in the 5G architecture that enables seamless connectivity between 5G networks and untrusted non-3GPP networks, such as a Wi-Fi network not trusted by the mobile operator.

The N3IWF is the IPsec tunnel terminating node for 5G, similar to the ePDG in 4G. It is located in the Mobile Core and communicates with the Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF) control plane over the N2 interface. For the data plane, it communicates with the User Plane Function (UPF) over the N3 interface.

Because it works transparently with any Wi-Fi network, it is the gateway of choice for Wi-Fi Calling but can also be used for all types of data traffic.

Key functions include:

• Provides a secure gateway to the operator’s 5G
  network for non-3GPP access.
• Establishes IPsec tunnels between the UE and
  N3IWF for secure communication.
• Handles user equipment registration (UE) with the
  5G Core.
• Manages the establishment of Protocol Data Unit
  (PDU) sessions.
• Facilitates data transfer between the UE and the
  data network.

Trusted Non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF)

The trusted non-3GPP Gateway Function (TNGF) plays a crucial role in integrating trusted non-3GPP networks, such as a Wi-Fi network trusted by the mobile operator, with the 5G Core Network, providing a secure and standardized way to extend 5G services beyond the traditional cellular network.

The TNGF is, for 5G, the equivalent to the Wireless Access Gateway (WAG) used for trusted access to the 4G Core. The TNGF is located in a trusted environment, often the Wi-Fi network, and communicates with the AMF control plane over the N2 interface. For the data plane, it communicates with the User Plane Function (UPF) over the N3 interface.

The device and the TNGF are connected using an IPsec tunnel with null encryption, more about this later. After successful authentication, a TNGF key is established between TNGF and the device, aka user equipment (UE). Another key is derived from the TNGF key and sent to the Wi-Fi Access Point (AP) for Wi-Fi layer-2 security (WPA2/WPA3).

Trusted WLAN Interworking Function (TWIF)

The trusted WLAN Interworking Function (TWIF) is a 5G function for interoperability with legacy devices. This resolves the contingency that some devices may support 5G SIM authentication but do not support 5G NAS signaling over trusted Wi-Fi access. These devices lack the support for the EAP-5G and IKEv2 protocols, meaning they cannot directly communicate with the 5G core network using the N1 interface over Wi-Fi. 3GPP refers to such devices as non-5G-Capable over WLAN (N5CW). The TWIF contains the NAS protocol stack and exchanges NAS messages with the AMF on behalf of these types of devices.

The TWIF is located in a trusted environment, often the Wi-Fi Network, and communicates with the Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF) control plane over the N1 and N2 interface. For the data plane, it communicates with the User Plane Function (UPF) over the N3 interface. Just as in the case of TNGF, the device connects with the TWIF using an IPsec tunnel with NULL encryption.

Other 5G Network Functions

There are also other 5G network functions in play for Wi-Fi integration, we will mention them briefly here:

• Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF): A control plane function acting as a central hub of the 5G core network. It primarily manages user access and mobility.
• Session Management Function (SMF): A control plane function responsible for session
  management in the 5G core network.
• Authentication Server Function (AUSF): Is responsible for authentication and security-related functions in the 5G core network.
• Unified Data Management (UDM): A centralizedway to manage network user data in 5G. Policy Control Function (PCF): The PCF evolved from the Policy and Charging Rules Function (PCRF) in 4G networks. It is responsible for policy control and management in 5G networks.
• Charging Function (CHF): This function generates charging data and billing information for 5G network usage.

Control- and User Plane Interfaces – How It is All Connected

For Cellular networks, the N2 and N3 interfaces connect the base station (gNB) with the AMF and UPF. For Wi-Fi, they use the non-3GPP interworking and gateway functions (N3IWF, TNGF, TWIF) to connect with the AMF and UPF.

5G introduces a new principle for non-3GPP access. Multiple non-access stratum (NAS) connections over the N1 interface make simultaneous connections via cellular and Wi-Fi possible. This is a prerequisite for the new ATSSS (Access Traffic Steering, Switching, and Splitting) specification. The same authentication procedures, EAP-AKA′ and 5G-AKA are used for both Cellular and Wi-Fi.

New EAP Protocol and Unusual Use of IPsec

A new protocol, EAP-5G, has been introduced to support NAS messages over Wi-Fi networks through the N1 interface. The IKEv2 protocol is utilized to establish an IPsec SA tunnel between the device and the gateway functions (N3IWF, TNGF, and TWIF). The EAP-5G protocol then encapsulates NAS messages over the IKEv2 protocol.

Another interesting new principle is the use of IPsec SA also for trusted Wi-Fi networks. Why would you want to use an IPsec connection in a secure Wi-Fi network? The IPsec tunnel, with NULL encryption to avoid duplicated encryption, primarily serves for integrity protection and as a consistent framework for both untrusted and trusted Wi-Fi access. Implementations in devices and gateways with dual support for both trusted and untrusted access will be easier to implement.

N1 Control Plane Interface

The N1 is a control plane interface between the device (User Equipment – UE) and the Access and Mobility Management Function (AMF). It handles Non-Access Stratum (NAS) signaling between the UE and the AMF in the 5G Core Network. The AMF is primarily used for authentication and mobility management.

The N1 interface is used both for Cellular and Wi-Fi for 5G-capable devices. Although the N1 signaling passes through the Radio Access Network (RAN), it is transparent to the RAN and is not processed by the intermediate network elements such as the N3IWF and the TNGF.
The N1 interface plays a crucial role in enabling UEs to communicate with the 5G Core Network for various control plane functions, ensuring proper connectivity, mobility, and service access.

These are the main functions N1 enables:

• Registration management: The N1 interface is used for managing the process of registering and de-registering a UE with the 5G network.
• Connection management: It manages the connection between the UE and the network, handling procedures for establishing and maintaining connectivity.
• Session management: It handles messages and procedures related to session management, such as establishing and terminating PDU sessions.
• Mobility management: The N1 interface supports mobility-related signaling to maintain knowledge of a UE’s location within the network.
• Security procedures: It is used for securityrelated signaling, including authentication and key agreement procedures.

N2 Control Plane Interface

The N2 is the control plane interface between the cellular or Wi-Fi access networks and the 5G Core Network. It carries Next Generation Application Protocol (NGAP) messages between the RAN (cellular and Wi-Fi) and the AMF. NGAP handles the exchange of control information related to the establishment, modification, and release of connections between gNBs and the AMF for cellular and between the gateway functions (N3IWF, TWIF, and TNGF) and the AMF for Wi-Fi.

The N2 interface is crucial for enabling communication and coordination between the radio access network and the 5G core network. It supports a wide range of control plane functions necessary for network operation and management:

• PDU session/resource management: The N2 interface handles procedures for managing PDU sessions and network resources.
• UE context management: It supports procedures related to managing UE contexts in the network.
• Mobility management: It facilitates mobilityrelated signaling, including handovers between base stations (gNB) in the 5G network.

N3 Data Plane Interface

The N3 is the data plane interface between the access network and the User Plane Function (UPF) in the 5G Core. The UPF is the packet gateway that transports data to the internet.

As discussed, traffic is delivered to the UPF through tunnels created by GTP encapsulation. Each subscriber will have one or more GTP tunnels, one for each active PDU session. The GTP tunnels are identified by a TEID (Tunnel Endpoint Identifier) in the GTP messages. The GTP tunnel is updated when a user moves between Wi-Fi and cellular networks to maintain session continuity.

Will 5G Operators Embrace Wi-Fi Offloading?

The answer is “yes likely,” and there are a few reasons why:

1. Increased Need for Indoor Coverage: As highlighted in our white paper, Wi-Fi in the 5G Era, the demand for reliable indoor coverage is
   driving operators to lean more heavily on Wi-Fi as a complementary solution to 5G, particularly in challenging indoor environments.
2. Emergence of Carrier-Grade Wi-Fi: A new generation of carrier-grade Wi-Fi (Wi-Fi 6, 6E, and 7) brings advanced features like OFDMA scheduling. With Wi-Fi 6E and Wi-Fi 7 operating in the 6 GHz band, the available spectrum for Wi-Fi has tripled. As a result, Wi-Fi is evolving from a “best-effort” solution to a more reliable, carrier-class option.

Will 5G Operators Backhaul the Wi-Fi Traffic to the Mobile Core?

The answer is “maybe,” largely depending on the adoption of the Access Traffic Steering, Switching & Splitting (ATSSS) standard by device manufacturers. Without ATSSS, there is limited incentive to backhaul Wi-Fi offloading traffic to the mobile core. Instead, the industry is expected to continue with local traffic breakout for Wi-Fi offloading and reserve backhauling primarily for Wi-Fi Calling.

However, if widely adopted, ATSSS could provide a compelling reason for operators to backhaul all traffic. Most web applications do not currently support multipath streaming (using both Wi-Fi and cellular connections simultaneously), requiring an aggregation point to merge these streams. The Packet Gateway in the Mobile Core (UPF) is well-positioned to serve this function. Nonetheless, history suggests that many promising 3GPP standards do not achieve widespread deployment. For a deeper dive, see our upcoming post on Will ATSSS Be the Future of Wi-Fi and Cellular Convergence?